Binding assay signal analysis

ABSTRACT

Methods for determining a sample concentration of target entities in a sample, for example, determining a concentration of target antigens or antibodies in a blood sample or other biological sample.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.15/517,228 filed Apr. 6, 2017, which is a National Phase entry of PCTApplication No. PCT/EP2015/073036, filed Oct. 6, 2015, which claimspriority from Great Britain Application No. 1417640.8, filed Oct. 6,2014, and which claims priority from Portuguese Application No. 107946A, filed Oct. 6, 2014, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporatedby referenced herein in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure relates to methods and systems for determining aconcentration of target entities in a sample, for example, determining aconcentration of target antigens or antibodies in a biological sample.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Immunoassays can be used to quantitatively determine a concentration oftarget entities, for example antigens, present in a sample. In the caseof microfluidic immunoassays, an arrangement comprising a microfluidicchamber into which a sample is introduced may be used. Such a chambercomprises a plurality of probe entities, for example antibodies,immobilized on a surface of the chamber such that, as the sample ispassed over the surface, antigens in the sample bind to the antibodiesin the chamber. The amount of antibody-antigen binding may be detectedand quantified using, for example, fluorescence or surface plasmonresonance measurements (SPR) and a concentration of target entities inthe sample can be determined from this amount.

Due to the constraints inherent in existing immunoassays, for examplethe probe density or detection sensitivity, the range of concentrationsof target entities in a sample which can be detected by knownmicrofluidic immunoassays is limited. For any one assay, detection andquantification will only work in a sensitive (ideally linear) range ofthe relationship between target concentration and detection signal.Below this range, signal to noise ratios are too low and above thisrange the assay saturates. In either case, the measured signal becomesindependent of sample concentration.

It would be desirable to provide methods and systems for determiningtarget concentration that address these issues and extend the dynamicrange over which concentrations can be quantified.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect a method is provided for determining a sampleconcentration of target entities in a sample, for example, determining aconcentration of target antigens or antibodies in a blood sample orother biological sample. The method comprises obtaining assay datacomprising data points of respective local measurements indicative of alocal concentration of target entities immobilised at each of aplurality of assay areas of an assay assembly from an assay using theassay assembly. The assay areas are connected in series such that asample flowing through the assay assembly flows past each assay area insequence. Each assay area comprises a plurality of probe entitiesimmobilized at a surface of the assay area, the probe entities beingarranged to bind to the target entities in the sample, such that theconcentration of the target entities is depleted as the sample flowsfrom one of the assay areas to the next. The assay data is modeled witha parameterized function of the local measurements against a quantityindicative of the position of the respective assay areas in thesequence, wherein one or more of the parameters are dependent on thesample concentration. A value indicative of the sample concentration isdetermined based on at least one of the one or more parameters.

By using depletion data obtained from a plurality of serially connectedassay areas, information concerning target-probe binding can be obtainedat different concentrations of target entities as the concentrationdecreases from one assay area to the next. Accordingly, a larger rangeof sample concentrations of target entities can be determined ascompared to a system comprising a single assay area. By modeling thedata with a function of measurement results from the plurality of assayareas against the quantity, the data is combined so that the overallsignal to noise ratio may be improved.

It will be understood that modeling the data may involve adjusting theone or more parameters to fit the parameterized function to the datapoints, for example by reducing or minimizing a corresponding sumfunction capturing a discrepancy between values of the parameterizedfunction and the data points, as is well known in the art. Examples ofsuch known techniques are non-linear regression, gradient descent andleast square optimization in general

In some embodiments, one of the one or more parameters is a variableparameter indicative of an offset amount which offsets the quantityindicative of the position of the assay area in the sequence such thatthe parameterized function is a function of the local measurementsagainst the quantity indicative of the position of the assay area in thesequence offset by the offset amount. In other words, where the quantityindicative of the position of the assay area, i, in the sequence isdenoted by DZ_(i), the parameterized function is a function of(DZ_(i)+Offset), where ‘Offset’ is the offset amount.

The parameterized function may be derived from a plurality of assay datasets, each obtained for a respective sample concentration, the sampleconcentrations covering a range of sample concentrations.

The parameterized function may be thought of by way of illustration toaid understanding and not limitation, as representative of a masterdepletion curve defining the depletion of a concentration of a targetentities in a system characteristic of the assay assembly, the systemcomprising a plurality of notional assay areas arranged such that theconcentration of target entities is depleted from one notional assayarea in the sequence to the next notional assay area in the sequence.The number of notional assay areas is greater than the number of assayareas in the assay assembly. The fit of the master depletion curve tothe assay data sets can be thought of by notionally offsetting the assayareas by the offset amount such that the assay areas of the assayassembly are mapped to a set of notional assay areas corresponding to asample concentration.

The parameterized function may be a logistic function. In some cases ann^(th) order polynomial function or a spline may be used, or any othersuitable functional form may be used. The parameterized function maycomprise a look up table to represent the master depletion curve, forexample, using interpolation to construct data points between dataentries in the look up table.

In some embodiments, the offset amount is determined by minimizing adifference between the respective local measurement and a correspondingvalue of the parameterized function for each assay area of the assayassembly. For example, the offset amount may be determined using a leastsquares approximation or any other suitable approximation.

In some embodiments, the offset amount, ‘Offset’ is determined byminimizing the following function:

$\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}\left\lbrack {{{DP}\left( {DZ}_{i} \right)} - {f\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}$

where DP(DZ_(i)) is the local measurement at the respective assay area,i, and f is the corresponding value of the parameterized function. Aspreviously described, DZ_(i) is the quantity indicative of the positionof the assay area in the sequence. Minimization of any suitable costfunction may be carried out to obtain the best fit of the parameterizedfunction to the assay data. For example, Chi-squared minimizationtechniques may be used. Other minimization approaches may be to apply aweighting to the local measurements. For example, a lower weightingmight be given to measurements close to a noise threshold. For example,a higher weighting may be given to the assay areas earlier in thesequence.

In some embodiments, the one or more parameters may comprise one or morefixed parameters characteristic of a given assay assembly. For example,one fixed parameter may be indicative of a maximum amplitude of thelocal measurement which can be detected from the assay area sometimesreferred to as DP_(max) below. For example, another fixed parameter maybe indicative of an amount by which or a rate at which the concentrationof target entities is depleted as the sample flows from one assay areato the next, sometimes referred to as Shape below. It will beappreciated that these parameters are referred to as fixed in the sensethat they are characteristic of an assay assembly (or a batch or assayassemblies manufactured under substantially identical conditions) andsubstantially do not vary as a function of the composition of the sampleto by assayed. It will be understood that each assay assembly is onlyused once in some embodiments and hence experiments are carried outusing respective assay assemblies from the same manufacturing batch tocharacterise the batch. The determined fixed parameters may be verifiedas being representative of the batch by validation experiments usingother assemblies of the batch with samples of known sample concentrationor target entities.

The values of DP_(max) and Shape may be determined and fixed for theassay assembly.

The one or more fixed parameters may be determined using experimentaldata, for example, by minimizing a difference between the respectivelocal measurement and a corresponding value of the parameterizedfunction for each assay area, i, in the assay assembly for each of aplurality of experiments, j, wherein each experiment is carried outusing a sample having a given concentration of target entities and theconcentrations span a range of concentrations. For example, the offsetamount may be determined using a least squares approximation or anyother suitable approximation.

In one example, the one or more fixed parameters or set of constants, λ,may be determined by minimizing the following function

$\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{m}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}\left\lbrack {{{DP}\left( {DZ}_{i} \right)} - {f_{\lambda}\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}_{j}} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}}$

Wherein data from m experiments is used and wherein, for eachexperiment, an assay assembly comprising n assay areas is used. Inaddition to the fixed parameters, a value of ‘Offset’ can also bedetermined for each of the plurality of experiments, j. Using this data,a relationship between Offset and the starting concentration of targetentities of a sample for each experiment, Concentration_(j), may bedefined as a calibration function giving a concentration value for acorresponding value of Offset. For example, a calibration function canbe fitted to data points of {Concentraion_(j),Offset_(j)}. As will bedescribed further below, the calibration function may be used todetermine the sample concentration of target entities based on at leastone of the one or more the variable parameters, in particular Offset inthe example above.

The parameterized function may be a logistic function.

In some embodiments, the parameterized function is proportional to:

$\begin{matrix}\frac{{DP}_{\max}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)} \right\rbrack}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

wherein DP_(max) is indicative of a maximum amplitude of the localmeasurement which can be detected from an assay area, Shape isindicative of a rate at which the concentration of target entities isdepleted as the sample flows from one assay area to the next, Offset isa variable parameter determined by data fitting, and DZ_(i) isindicative of the position of the respective assay area, i, in thesequence.

In some embodiments, detection is carried out in the centre of eachassay area, accordingly DZ_(i) may take a positive half integer valuefor each assay area i.e. 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, etc. This is because an amountof depletion occurs in the first assay area prior to the locus where thefirst measurement is taken. DZ_(i) may take an integer value, or anyother suitable value. In some embodiments a mixture of integer and halfinteger values may be used. In some embodiments, the quantity indicativeof position in the sequence is indicative of an amount of probe entities(able to interact with target entities) present upstream of the assayarea—the locus where the corresponding measurement is taken. In theseembodiments, the change in the quantity from one assay area to the nextmay be non-constant and may depend on the amount of probe entities orthe capacity to bind target entities between the two assay areasconcerned.

The parameterized function may be fit to the obtained assay data byadjusting the value of Offset. This, by way of illustration, can bethought of as mapping the assay data to the master depletion curve. Thevalue indicative of the concentration of target entities in the samplemay be determined using a value of Offset with a calibration function.

In the parameterised function given by (1) above, the assay assembly ischaracterized by determining DP_(max) and Shape. More complex models,for example the 4PL and 5PL functions mentioned below may be moreaccurate in describing the system however, in such complex models,additional fitting parameters are used.

The value indicative of the sample concentration may be determined, forexample calculated, using a calibration function. The calibrationfunction may be a logistic function, an exponential function, or anyother suitable function. In some embodiments the calibration functioncomprises a first function for use at sample concentrations of a targetentity above a given value, and a second function for use at sampleconcentrations of a target entity below the given value. In a particularembodiment the first function is a function of Offset, and the secondfunction is a function of a notional undepleted response at DZ_(i)=0such that the second function is a function of:

$\begin{matrix}\frac{{DP}_{\max}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}{Offset}} \right\rbrack}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

Determining the value indicative of the sample concentration of thetarget entities may comprise calculating the sample concentration itselfor calculating any transformation of the sample concentration. Likewise,determining the value indicative of sample concentration may includemodeling the local measurements directly or any transformation thereof.

Determining the sample concentration may be an iterative process. Forexample, a first step may be applied initially followed by a second stepthat may provide a more refined result. Specifically, in someembodiments, the first function is used in the first step to determine avalue indicative of concentration. If the value is below a threshold,the second step re-calculates the value using the second calibrationfunction. In some embodiments, the order is reversed and the firstfunction is used in the second step if the value from the first step(from the second function) is above a threshold.

In some embodiments, the calibration function is a 4 parameter logistic(4PL) nonlinear regression model as shown in equation (2) below.

$\begin{matrix}{y = {d + \frac{a - d}{1 + \left( \frac{x}{c} \right)^{b}}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

where a, b, c and d are fixed parameters and x=Offset (or other fitparameter).

In some embodiments, the calibration function is a 5 parameter logistic(5PL) nonlinear regression model as shown in equation (3) below.

$\begin{matrix}{y = {d + \frac{\left( {a - d} \right)}{\left( {1 + \left( \frac{x}{c} \right)^{b}} \right)^{g}}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where a, b, c, d and g are fixed parameters and x=Offset (or other fitparameter).

As mentioned above, the 4PL and 5PL functions can also be used as theparameterized function. In that case, x=DZ_(i)+Offset, for example.

In some embodiments each local measurement is indicative of variation ina refractive index at the surface of the respective assay area due totarget-probe binding. For example, the local measurement may correspondto a change in Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) behavior at the detectionarea. Such a change may be detected by a change in the peak of SPRabsorption, for example, a diffusion angle value at which the peakoccurs. Other SPR detection paradigms, for example based on wavelengthor phase may of course be used in some embodiments. Using SPRmeasurements, changes in the local concentration of target entities fromone assay area to the next of 0.5 nM may be detected. Alternatively, anyother suitable means for quantitatively detecting an amount oftarget-probe binding at the surface of the respective assay area may beused, for example, fluorescence or absorption detection (for example UVabsorption) and/or detection of a label (fluorescent or otherwise) boundto the target entities may be used.

Variation in the refractive index at the surface of the respective assayarea may be amplified using an amplifier solution, in some embodiments.The amplifier solution is arranged to interact with target entitiesbound to the surface of the assay area such that the variation in therefractive index at the respective assay area is amplified when theamplifier has interacted with the bound target entities. The amplifiersolution may comprise entities which are arranged to bind to the targetentities which are in turn bound to the surface of the assay area, forexample gold nanoparticles that are functionalized to bind to the targetentities to give target specific amplification, other suitablenanoparticles, secondary antibodies, and beads may be used. Theamplifier solution may amplify the variation in the refractive index atthe surface of the respective assay area by 2-20 times, for example 5-10times, for example 10 times.

The target and/or probe entities may be molecules or other suitableentities, for example proteins, DNA, peptides, enzymes, viruses,bacteria, cells, etc. The sample may be a blood sample or any otherliquid biological (or other) sample.

In some embodiments, each local measurement comprises a differencebetween a baseline signal detected prior to interaction of the samplewith the assay area and a post-amplification signal detected afterinteraction of the amplifier solution with target entities bound to therespective assay area. For example, the post-amplification signal may bedetected after the respective assay area has been washed with a buffersolution.

In some embodiments, each local measurement comprises a differencebetween a pre-amplification signal and post-amplification signal. Thepre-amplification signal is detected after interaction of the samplewith the respective assay area and before interaction of the amplifiersolution with target entities bound to the respective assay area. Thepost-amplification signal is detected after interaction of the amplifiersolution with target entities bound to the respective assay area. Thepre-amplification signal may comprise a contribution from a bulk samplerefractive index of the sample. The post-amplification signal may beobtained after unbound amplifier and the sample have been substantiallywashed away by buffer solution in a wash step subsequent to theapplication of amplifier. In such embodiments, the parameterizedfunction of the local measurements may comprise an adjustment term toaccount for the bulk sample refractive index of the sample affecting thepre-amplification signal but not the post-amplification signal. Theadjustment term may be fit to the data points as part of the one or morevariable parameters, for example it may be fit simultaneously togetherwith Offset in some embodiments. In other embodiments, the adjustmentterm may be determined based on a difference between a baseline signaldetected prior to interaction of the sample with the assay area and thepre-amplification signal. In such embodiments there is no need to fitthis term but rather the adjustment term can simply be subtracted fromthe local measurement (the difference between the pre and postamplification signals).

Using local measurements which comprise a difference between thepre-amplification signal and post-amplification signal has the advantagethat the local measurement is made over a shorter time period and so theeffect of any drift in the signals being compared is reduced.Embodiments that account for bulk sample refractive index contributionto the pre-amplification signal advantageously dispense with the needfor a separate wash step prior to amplification if bulk samplerefractive index changes are to be accounted for.

In some embodiments, the concentration of amplifier solution is suchthat the assay assembly (i.e. all assay areas) is saturated withamplifier.

In some embodiments, the concentration of amplifier solution is suchthat the assay assembly is not saturated with amplifier. In suchembodiments, the local measurements are dependent on the concentrationof the amplifier solution as well as the concentration of target in thesample. Hence, there is a combined depletion effect from both the sampleconcentration and from the amplifier itself. These two distinctdepletion processes may be characterized by the parameterized function,for example, the parameterised function may contain an additionalparameter to account for the depletion of amplifier or an additionalterm. Alternatively or in addition, the ‘Shape’ parameter may be avector varying with both the sample concentration and the amplifierconcentration. In some embodiments, Shape may be a function of thequantity indicative of position/upstream binding capacity to capture thevarying concentration of amplifier. In some embodiments, the effect ofthe concentration of amplifier can be thought of as being akin to theeffect of the density of probe entities present in the assay assembly.Accordingly, for example, the value of DZ_(i) may be adjusted to accountfor the amplifier concentration in a similar way to how DZ_(i) isadjusted to take into account the relative binding capacity of the assayassembly as will be described in detail below.

Using amplifier in non-saturating conditions has the advantage thatreduced amounts of amplifier are required, hence cost is reduced.

In some embodiments the assay areas have the same binding capacities forthe target entities.

In some embodiments the assay areas have different binding capacitiesfor the target entities. In some embodiments, DZ_(i) is indicative of anamount of probe entities upstream of the position of the assay assembly,i.

The assay areas may be connected by microfluidic circuitry. In someembodiments, the circuitry between the assay area as a binding capacityfor target entities.

Each assay area may be located in a respective chamber connected toadjacent chambers housing respective assay area(s) in the sequence by aconduit between pairs of chambers. Each assay area may occupy a portionof a chamber, wherein the local measurements are made at each respectiveportion. Alternatively, the assay area may occupy the whole chamber. Insome embodiments, a plurality of assay areas is provided in a singlechamber, for example as part of a contiguous functionalized surface, theassay areas being solely defined by the locus where measurements aretaken.

Each local measurement may be indicative of a rate at which theamplifier solution interacts with the respective assay area, for examplemeasured as a rate of change of the measurement signal at a definedpoint.

Each local measurement may comprise a measurement indicative of the timetaken from introduction of the amplifier solution into the respectiveassay area to detection of a threshold signal amplitude, for example amaximum signal amplitude.

In some embodiments, obtaining assay data may comprise carrying out thelocal measurements. Alternatively, assay data may be obtained from athird party.

In a second aspect a system for determining a sample concentration oftarget entities in a sample is provided. The system comprises aprocessor arranged to obtain assay data comprising data points ofrespective local measurements indicative of a local concentration oftarget entities immobilized at each of a plurality of assay areas of anassay assembly from an assay using the assay assembly, wherein the assayareas are connected in series such that a sample flowing through theassay assembly flows past each assay area in sequence, and wherein eachassay area comprises a plurality of probe entities immobilized at asurface of the assay area, the probe entities being arranged to bind tothe target entities, such that the concentration of the target entitiesis depleted as the sample flows from one of the assay areas to the next.The processor is also arranged to model the assay data with aparameterized function of the local measurements against a quantityindicative of the position of the respective assay areas in thesequence, wherein one or more of the parameters are dependent on thesample concentration. The processor is further arranged to determine avalue indicative of the sample concentration based on at least one ofthe one or more parameters.

In a third aspect a method for determining a sample concentration oftarget entities in a sample is provided. The method comprisesintroducing a sample into an assay assembly from an assay using theassay assembly, the assay assembly comprising a plurality of assay areaswherein the assay areas are connected in series such that a sampleflowing through the assay assembly flows past each assay area insequence, and wherein each assay area comprises a plurality of probeentities immobilized at a surface of the assay area, the probe entitiesbeing arranged to bind to the target entities, such that theconcentration of the target entities is depleted as the sample flowsfrom one of the assay areas to the next. The sample is caused to flowthrough the assay assembly and local measurements are carried out ateach assay area to obtain assay data comprising data points ofrespective local measurements indicative of a local concentration of thetarget entities immobilized at each of the plurality of assay areas ofthe assay assembly. The assay data is modeled with a parameterizedfunction of the local measurements against a quantity indicative of theposition of the assay area in the sequence, wherein one or more of theparameters are dependent on the sample concentration. A value indicativeof the sample concentration is determined based on at least one of theone or more parameters.

In a further aspect, a system is provided for determining a sampleconcentration of target entities in a sample. The system comprises anassay assembly comprising a plurality of assay areas connected in seriessuch that a sample flowing through the assay assembly flows past eachassay area in sequence, and wherein each assay area comprises aplurality of probe entities immobilized at a surface of the assay area,the probe entities being arranged to bind to the target entities, suchthat the concentration of the target entities is depleted as the sampleflows from one of the assay areas to the next. The system furthercomprises at least one detector arranged to carry out local measurementsat each assay area to obtain assay data comprising data points ofrespective local measurements indicative of a local concentration of thetarget entities immobilized at each of the plurality of assay areas. Thesystem further comprises a processor arranged to model the assay datawith a parameterized function of the local measurements against aquantity indicative of the position of the assay area in the sequence,wherein one or more of the parameters are dependent on the sampleconcentration. The processor is also arranged to determine a valueindicative of the sample concentration based on at least one of the oneor more parameters.

In some embodiments a single detector is provided for carrying out localmeasurements at the plurality of assay areas, for example by moving oneof the detector and the assay areas relative to the other.Alternatively, a detector may be provided for each assay area.

In a further aspect, a method for determining a sample concentration oftarget entities in a sample is provided. The method comprising obtainingassay data comprising a local measurement indicative of a localconcentration of the target entity immobilised at an assay area of anassay assembly from an assay using the assay assembly, wherein the assayarea comprises a plurality of probe entities immobilized at a surface ofthe assay area, the probe entities being arranged to bind to targetentities. The local measurement is based on signals indicative of avariation in a refractive index at the surface of the assay area, suchvariation being amplified following interaction of an amplifier solutionwith target entities bound to the surface of the assay area. The localmeasurement comprises a difference between a pre-amplification signaland post-amplification signal, wherein the pre-amplification signal isdetected after interaction of the sample with the assay area and beforeinteraction of the amplifier solution with the target entities bound tothe assay area, and the post-amplification signal is detected afterinteraction of the amplifier solution with the target entities bound tothe assay area and after the assay area has been washed with a buffersolution. The method further comprises adjusting the local measurementusing an adjustment term such that a bulk sample refractive index of thesample is taken into account and using the adjusted local measurement todetermine a value indicative of the sample concentration.

In some embodiments, the adjustment term is determined based on adifference between a baseline signal detected prior to interaction ofthe sample with the assay area and the pre-amplification signal. Thefeatures relating to the compensation for bulk sample refractive indexcontribution of the bulk of the sample described above are equallyapplicable here.

In a further aspect an assay assembly for determining a sampleconcentration of target entities in a sample is provided. The assayassembly comprises a plurality of assay areas serially connected suchthat a sample flowing through the assay assembly flows through eachassay area in sequence. Each assay assembly comprises an inlet and anoutlet and for each pair of assay areas in the plurality of assay areas,the outlet of a first assay area is coupled to the inlet of a secondassay area by a coupling portion, such that a sample flowing through theassay assembly flows from first assay area to the second assay area viathe coupling portion for each pair of assay areas in the plurality ofassay areas. In addition, each assay area comprises a plurality of probeentities immobilized at a surface of the assay area, the probe entitiesbeing arranged to bind to the target entities, such that theconcentration of the target entities is detectably depleted as thesample flows from one of the assay areas to the next.

As a sample is passed through the assay assembly, the flow of the samplemay be a laminar flow such that diffusion or other mixing effects aresubstantially negligible. In such cases, only target entities in aportion of the sample adjacent the chamber surface will be available forbinding with the probe entities. As the sample passes from one chamberto the next sufficiently fast to limit diffusion, due to the laminarflow of the sample, the same portion of sample will be adjacent thesurface of each chamber and only target entities present in that sameportion of the sample are available for binding. Hence, theconcentration of target entities in the portion of the sample adjacenteach surface is depleted as the sample flows from one chamber to thenext. While the depletion may be only a small fraction of the amount oftarget in the bulk of the sample, due to diffusion limited laminar flowthe depletion of target entities represents a significant detectablechange in concentration.

In a further aspect, a microfluidic device comprising an assay assemblydescribed above is provided.

It will be appreciated that each of the features described above mayapply to each aspect described. All possible combinations are not listedin detail here for the sake of brevity.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Specific embodiments are described below by way of example only and withreference to the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1—is a schematic illustration of a device comprising an assayassembly;

FIG. 2A—is a schematic illustration of a cross-sectional view oftarget-probe binding in an assay area of the assay assembly of FIG. 1;

FIG. 2B—is schematic illustration of a cross-sectional view ofamplifier-target binding an assay area of the assay assembly of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3—is a schematic illustration of a system for determining theconcentration of a target entity in a sample;

FIG. 4—is a graphical representation of a depletion master curve;

FIG. 5—is a graphical representation of the depletion curve of FIG. 4 isusing experimental data;

FIG. 6—is a flow chart showing a method for determining theconcentration of a target entity in a sample;

FIG. 7—is a sensorgram illustrating the variation in a responseamplitude with time and illustrating local measurements Δ₃₁, Δ₃₂ andΔ₂₁;

FIG. 8—is a sensorgram illustrating the variation in a responseamplitude with time and illustrating a local measurement G_(amp); and

FIG. 9—is a sensorgram illustrating the variation in a responseamplitude with time and illustrating a local measurement Δ_(t).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

With reference to FIG. 1, a centrifugal or “lab on a disc” microfluidicdevice 2 is arranged for rotation about an axis 4. Typically, themicrofluidic device 2 is a microfluidic polycarbonate disc having anouter diameter of 120 mm, a thickness of ˜1.2 mm, and a hole in thecentre of the disc measuring 15 mm in diameter. The disc comprises two0.6 mm discs bound together by a thin-film polymer. The microfluidicfeatures shown in FIG. 1 and described below are defined in one of thediscs and the thin film. The other of the two discs comprises SPR areasprovided with a gold coated diffraction grating as described below. Thedisc 2 comprises an assay assembly 6 which has a plurality chambers 8arranged in series such that each pair of chambers in the plurality islinked by a conduit 10. The chambers are aligned with SPR areas. Asample, for example blood or other liquid, is introduced into the assayassembly 6 via an inlet conduit 14, which forms an inlet for the firstchamber 8 in the series, and the sample leaves the assay assembly via anoutlet conduit 12, which forms an outlet for the final chamber 8 in theseries. Each chamber 8 measures 0.02 mm in depth and is placed at adistance of 50 mm from the centre of the disc. Each chamber is typicallyapproximately 50 nl in volume and the assay assembly and device arearranged such that approximately 100 μl of liquid can flow through theassay assembly in approximately 5-6 minutes.

With reference to FIG. 2A, a single chamber 8 will now be described. Thechamber 8 comprises an inlet 16 through which a sample may enter thechamber 8 from a connecting conduit 10 (or the inlet conduit 14 in thecase of the first chamber in the series) and an outlet 18 through whichthe sample may leave the chamber 8 via a connecting conduit 10 (or theoutlet conduit 12 in the case of the final chamber in the series). Whena sample is passed through the chamber, the sample flows through thechamber from the inlet 16 to the outlet 18 in the direction shown by thearrow ‘F’ in FIG. 2A.

The chamber 8 has a surface 20 comprising a grating of sinusoidal shape(not shown) measuring 100 nm in height and having a period of 1600 nm.The surface 20 is gold coated and has a monolayer of probe entities 22immobilized on top of the gold surface. Each probe entity 22 has theability to specifically bind to a specific corresponding target entity24 which may be present in a sample passed through the chamber 8, suchthat when a sample containing target entities 24 flows through thechamber 8, specific target entities 24 in the sample bind to the probeentities 22 at the chamber surface 20.

As a sample is passed through the assay assembly, the flow of the sampleis a laminar flow at sufficient rate such that diffusion or other mixingeffects are substantially negligible throughout the assay assembly.Accordingly, only target entities 24 in a portion of the sample adjacentthe chamber surface 20 will be available for binding with the probeentities 22. As the sample passes from one chamber 8 to the next, due tothe laminar flow of the sample, the same portion of sample will beadjacent the surface 20 of each chamber 8, hence only target entities 24present in that same portion of the sample are available for binding. Inthis way, the concentration of target entities 24 in the portion of thesample adjacent each surface 20 is depleted as the sample flows from onechamber 8 to the next.

Due to probe entities in only a thin layer being available for binding,a concentration change in target entities bound to the probe entitiesfrom one chamber to the next is detectable using SPR technology. Forexample, a detectable change in concentration in the liquid layeradjacent the surface 20 may be 0.5 nM from one point in a chamber 8 to acorresponding point in the next chamber 8.

With reference to FIG. 3, a system 26 for determining the concentrationof a target entity 24 in a sample is now described. The system 26comprises a microfluidic device 2 comprising an assay assembly 6 asdescribed above. A light source 28 is provided and aligned such thatemitted light is incident on a detection zone 30 of the surface 20 achamber 8. Typically the light source 28 is a polarized monochromaticlight source, for example a diode laser. When in use, an amount of lightincident on the detection zone 30 is reflected from the surface 20 andthe reflected light is detected by a detector 32. The detector 32 isarranged to measure the light intensity of the reflected light beam as afunction of angle over time.

The system further comprises a drive for rotating the device 2 to driveliquid flow in the device 2, under the control of a controller, suchthat various liquids including a sample are introduced into the device 2and flow through the assay assembly 6 in a defined sequence. The driveis not illustrated in FIG. 3 for the sake of clarity but further detailsof how liquid flows may be controlled can be found in WO 2011/122972 andWO2012/131556, incorporated herein by reference.

When in use, changes in the refractive index at the surface 20 of thedetection region 30 due to the presence of bound target entities or abound target-amplifier complex (see below) cause changes in the resonantbehavior of the surface 20, specifically changes in surface plasmonresonance behaviour. This can be detected by detecting a change in theangle at which a light intensity minimum occurs in the reflected lightas a function of time. The binding of target entities 24 to probeentities 22 at the surface 20 of the chamber 8 causes a change in therefractive index at the surface 20. Accordingly, the amount oftarget-probe binding at the surface 20 of the chamber 8 can bequantitatively determined by detection of changes in the refractiveindex at the chamber surface 20, for example by detecting change in theangle at which surface plasmon resonance occurs. In some embodiments,alternative approaches for determining surface plasmon effects may beused. Examples of SPR measurement techniques are given in: Jiri Homola,“Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors for Detection of Chemical andBiological Species”, Chem. Rev. 108, pages 462-493 (2008), incorporatedherein by reference.

The depletion of the local concentration of target entity 24 as thesample flows from one chamber 8 to the next can be thought of asestablishing a portion of a master depletion curve 35, which isillustrated in FIG. 4, with the starting concentration of the sampledefining the portion. The master depletion curve 35 characterizes thevariation in a local measurement indicative of the concentration oftarget entity 24 at the surface 20 of each of a respective chamber 8against a quantity indicative of the amount of probe entities upstreamof the position of the chamber 8 in the sequence.

The master depletion curve 35 may be understood conceptually byconsidering a hypothetical system having an unlimited number of notionalchambers (and hence detection zones) into which a sample having a veryhigh concentration of target entities is introduced. As the sample isintroduced into the assay assembly, the initial chambers in the sequenceare saturated with target entities, hence a measurement signal saturatesat a maximum amplitude of the local measurement, DP_(max). As the sampleflows through the sample chambers in sequence the amount of targetentities becomes successively depleted and the amplitude of the localmeasurements at each chamber decreases. As the sample flows throughfurther chambers the amount of target entities is further depleted, theamplitude of the local measurements reaches a minimum amplitude,DP_(min). The local measurements for the remaining notional chambers arethen approximately constant at this minimum amplitude.

The master depletion curve 35 may be understood by consideringexperimental or hypothetical data from a plurality of experimentscarried out at different starting target entity concentrations of thesample using assay assemblies having fixed depletion characteristics.Depletion characteristics are determined by factors including fluidiccharacteristics, for example the flow rate of sample through the assayassembly 6, the height and width of the chambers 8, and the length ofthe detection circuit; characteristics of the recognition layer, forexample, the density of probe entities 22, the avidity and affinity ofthe probe entities 22 for the target entities 24; and characteristics ofthe target entity 24, for example the diffusion coefficient; amongstothers. An assay assembly used to carry out the experiments typicallyhas 5-10 chambers, accordingly the depletion data obtained will berepresentative of only a section of the master depletion curve, asexplained above.

With reference to FIG. 5, the master depletion curve may further beunderstood as a curve combining data from real or notional experimentscarried out at a range of known starting concentrations. The dataobtained may be thought of as being ‘stitched’ together to form themaster depletion curve. If the experimental data sets ‘overlap’ wherecertain chambers in separate experiments have the same or similar localtarget concentrations, the data sets may be notionally ‘shifted’ alongthe x axis until a smooth line is obtained.

In the example illustrated in FIG. 5, the master depletion curve may bethought of as a combined depletion curve from four experiments,(i)-(iv). Each experiment is carried out using an assay assemblycomprising five chambers and so a data set comprising five data pointsis obtained from each experiment. The starting concentration of targetentity used in experiment (i) is higher than that used in (ii), which isin turn higher than that used in (iii), which is higher than that usedin (iv). Using knowledge of the starting concentration of eachexperiment, the data sets can be ‘stitched’ together to form the masterdepletion curve.

The master depletion curve is represented by a parameterized function.In a specific embodiment, the function is a logistic function.

The parameterized function models the amplitude of local measurements,DP, made at a respective chamber against a quantity, DZ_(i), indicativeof the position in the sequence of the chamber 8 and hence detectionzone or area, more specifically, the amount of probe entities upstreamof the position of the chamber 8, i, in the sequence. In someembodiments the position and amount quantities are essentially the same,save for some scaling. In other embodiments where the amount for eachchamber is not constant, the relationship may be more complicated asillustrated below.

Example values of DZ_(i) are shown in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 below where‘#DZ’ is the position of the chamber (hence detection zone) in thesequence, ‘DZ capacity’ is the relative capacity of the chamber to bindto target entities, and ‘DZ_(i)’ is the value indicative of the amountof probe entities upstream of the position of the chamber, i, in thesequence (which is of course also indication of the position in thesequence). DZ_(i) is used in the parameterised function. In each of theexamples shown in Tables 1-4, detection is made in the centre of theeach chamber. Table 1 shows the case where the chambers each have thesame relative capacity for binding target entities (for example the sameamount of probe entities above to bind target entities). In thisexample, the values of DZ_(i) used are 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 and 4.5 (the0.5 offset being representative of binding occurring in each chamberupstream of the detection area).

TABLE 1 #DZ 1 2 3 4 5 DZ Capacity 1 1 1 1 1 DZi for fit 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.54.5

Table 2 shows the case where the relative capacity of the chamberdoubles from one chamber to the next. This difference in the relativecapacity of the chambers is accounted for in the value of DZ_(i) used.

TABLE 2 #DZ 1 2 3 4 5 DZ Capacity 1 2 4 8 16 DZi for fit 0.5 2 5 11 23

Table 3 shows the case where the 1^(st), 4^(th) and 5^(th) chambers havea relative capacity of 1 and the 2^(nd) and 3^(rd) chambers have arelative capacity of 2. Again, this difference in relative capacity isaccounted for by adjustment of DZ_(i).

TABLE 3 #DZ 1 2 3 4 5 DZ Capacity 1 2 2 1 1 DZi for fit 0.5 2 4 5.5 6.5

The chambers may be connected by microfluidic circuitry. In someembodiments, chambers are connected by microfluidic circuitry, thecircuitry between the chambers having a binding capacity for targetentities. Table 4 above shows the case where the assay areas have arelative binding capacity of 1 and the circuitry between the chambershave a relative capacity of 0.5. Detection is not carried out in thecircuitry. In this case, DZ_(i) is adjusted according to Table 4 toaccount for the relative capacity of the system.

TABLE 4 #DZ 1 2 3 4 5 DZ Capacity 1 2 2 1 1 DZi for fit 0.5 2.5 5 7 8.5

The parameterized function comprises constants which relate to the assayassembly and its depletion characteristics, DP_(max) and Shape, andwhich are fixed for a given assay assembly and assay. The function alsocomprises a parameter dependent on the concentration of target entities24 in the sample, Offset, which is indicative of the startingconcentration of a sample. The parameter, Offset, is determined byfitting the parameterised function to the data points for eachexperiment carried out.

In the above notional and illustrative explanation, Offset determinesthe location of the data points for the actual chambers/detection areason the master depletion curve.

With reference to FIG. 4, Offset can be understood as a value indicativeof the extent to which the master depletion curve is shifted along the xaxis. For example, for a sample having a low target concentration, thelocal measurement obtained at the first chamber in the sequence is acorrespondingly low measurement, DP₁. For the master depletion curve tofit this experimental data it must be shifted such that the localmeasurement, DP₁, corresponds to the value of DZ_(i), which isindicative of the first chamber, i=1. This is shown by DZ₁=0.5 in FIG.4. The amount by which the master depletion curve must be shifted, andin which direction, in order to fit the assay data obtained will dependon the target concentration of the sample. Accordingly, the value ofOffset is determined by fitting the parameterised function, and hencethe master depletion curve, to the respective local measurementsobtained at each chamber in the assay assembly.

The parameterised function is given by the expression shown in equation(5) below.

$\begin{matrix}{{DP} = \frac{2{DP}_{\max}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)} \right\rbrack}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

As described above with respect to FIG. 4, DP_(max) is the maximumamplitude of the local measurement which can be obtained at a firstchamber 8 of an assay assembly and remains constant throughout anexperiment. The parameter Shape is indicative of the rate at which theconcentration of target entities at the chamber surface is depleted asthe sample flows from one chamber to the next. This value depends on thedepletion characteristics of the assay assembly and remains constantthroughout an experiment for a given assay assembly and assay. exp istypically euler's number, e, however any other suitable base may be usedwith a corresponding adjustment in the other parameters.

As explained above, DZ_(i) corresponds to a value indicative of theamount of probe entities upstream of the position of the respectivechamber, i, in the sequence. With reference to FIG. 2A, the detectionzone 30 for each chamber 8 is a portion at the centre of the chambersurface 20. Accordingly in this arrangement, for each chamber, DZ_(i)may take a positive half integer value i.e. 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 etc.Alternatively, DZ_(i) may take an integer value, or any other suitablevalue indicative of the amount of probe entities upstream of theposition of the chamber in the assay assembly.

The constants Shape and DP_(max) are determined by characterizing abatch of assay assemblies prior to carrying out an experiment todetermine a sample concentration. Each assay assembly is only used onceand hence experiments to characterise a batch of assemblies are carriedout using respective assay assemblies from the same manufacturing batchto characterise the batch of microfluidic devices 2. The determinedvalues of Shape and DP_(max) are verified as being representative of thebatch by validation experiments using other assemblies of the batch withsamples of known sample concentration or target entities. The determinedvalues are then associated with the microfluidic devices 2, for example,by shipping with the device 2, for example as an indication onpackaging, or marking the device itself 2 to indicate the values, forexample using a bar code or other suitable means for carrying thisinformation. The packaging and/or disc may carry this informationdirectly or may carry a link to a remote location where this informationis held for access over a network for example the internet.

These values are constant for the assay assembly across all therespective local measurements. DP_(max) and Shape, which arecollectively denoted by λ, are determined using known experimental dataobtained from a plurality of experiments, j, each having a knownstarting concentration of target entities (the concentrations spanning arange of concentrations of interest) and each carried out using an assayassembly having a plurality of assay areas, i. DP_(max) and Shape aredetermined by minimizing the following sum:

$\begin{matrix}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{m}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}\left\lbrack {{{DP}\left( {DZ}_{i} \right)} - {f_{\lambda}\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

where DP(DZ_(i)) is the local measurement at the assay area, i, and f isthe corresponding value of the parameterized function having constantsλ. Data from m experiments is used, each experiment having been carriedout using an assay assembly having n assay areas. In some embodiments,the parameters of Shape and DP_(max) are determined using any suitableoptimization technique, e.g. least square, gradient descent, regressionor Chi-squared minimization techniques. From the sum, (6), above,‘Offset’ is also determined for each of the plurality of experiments, j,hence a relationship between ‘Offset’ and the starting concentration oftarget entities is determined. This relationship between Offset_(j) andconcentration, Concentration_(j), for each of the plurality ofexperiment, j, defines data points {Concentraion_(j),Offset_(j)} thatcan be used to fit a calibration function. As will be described furtherbelow, this calibration function is used to determine the sampleconcentration based on the value of Offset.

Using an assembly from a batch that has been characterized (values for λdetermined) assay experiments to find unknown concentrations of targetentities in a sample are carried out. The value of Offset is fit to theassay data from a given experiment in order to provide an indication ofthe starting concentration of the sample. For the avoidance of doubt,reference herein to the ‘starting concentration’ should be understood asreferring to the concentration of target entities in a sample to betested. The parameterized function may be fit to the assay data and thevalue of Offset determined by minimizing the following sum:

$\begin{matrix}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}\left\lbrack {{{DP}\left( {DZ}_{i} \right)} - {f\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

where DP(DZ_(i)) is the local measurement at the assay area, i, and f isthe corresponding value of the parameterized function. Minimization ofthis or any suitable cost function can be carried to obtain the best fitof the parameterized function to the assay data. In some embodiments,least-square regression minimization techniques are used and validatedusing a chi-squared test.

Once the value of Offset has been determined by fitting theparameterized function to the experimental data obtained, a valueindicative of the starting target concentration of the sample can bedetermined using a calibration function.

The calibration function comprises a first function and a secondfunction. The first function, f₁, is used to determine the targetconcentration for samples where the target concentration is known to behigh and is a function of ‘Offset’, for example f₁ may be found byfitting a suitable function to the data points,{Concentration_(j),Offset_(j)}, described above. The second function,f₂, is used to determine the target concentration for samples where thetarget concentration is known to be low and is a function of theundepleted measurement that would be obtained by the system, in otherwords, a function of the hypothetical local measurement when DZ_(i)=0.Accordingly, the second function is a function of the expression (8)below:

$\begin{matrix}\frac{2{DP}_{\max}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}{Offset}} \right\rbrack}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

In some embodiments, the first and second functions are represented inthe form of an exponential function as shown by equations (9a) and (9b)below.

f ₁ =X ₁ +Y ₁exp[−Z ₁×Offset]  (9a)

f ₂ =X ₂ +Y ₂exp[+Z ₂ ×DP(DZ _(i)=0)]  (9b)

DP(DZ_(i)=0) is the amplitude of the local measurement when DZ_(i)=0.The parameters X_(1,2), X_(1,2) and Z_(1,2) are be obtained by fittingto experimental data in a similar manner as described above.

In some embodiments, determining the sample concentration is aniterative process. For example, a first step may be applied initiallyfollowed by a second step that provides a more refined result.Specifically, in some embodiments, the first function is used in thefirst step to determine a value indicative of concentration. If thevalue is below a threshold, the second step re-calculates the valueusing the second calibration function. In some embodiments, the order isreversed and the first function is used in the second step if the valuefrom the first step (from the second function) is above a threshold.

Alternatively, in some embodiments the calibration function is a singlefunction relating Offset to the target concentration of the sample.

In some embodiments, the calibration curve of sample concentrationagainst Offset is a logistic function e.g. a 4PL nonlinear regressionmodel. In the case of a 4PL model, the sample concentration is afunction of (Offset, a, b, c, d), where a, b, c and d are parameters ofthe model which may be obtained using minimization techniques, forexample Chi-squared minimization techniques, and experimental data asdescribed above.

A method for determining the concentration of target entities in asample will now be described in overview with reference to FIG. 6. In afirst step 36 assay data is obtained. The assay data obtained comprisesa plurality of data points, each data point corresponding to a localmeasurement carried out at a respective chamber 8. The localmeasurements relate to the detection of changes in a refractive index atthe surface of each of the respective chambers and are indicative of theconcentration of target entity 24 at the surface 20 of the respectivechamber 8. The assay data is modeled with the parameterized function ata second step 38, as described above, the parameterized functioncomprising the parameter, Offset, dependent on the concentration of thetarget entity in the sample. A value indicative of the concentration ofthe target entity in the sample is then determined at a third step 40based on ‘Offset’ using the first and second calibration functionsdescribed above. It will be understood that at some point prior to step38, for example when loading the device 2 into the system 26, theparameters λ are loaded into the system, for example by manual entry orby reading a tag, such as a barcode, carrying this information, asdescribed above.

The system 26 described above and shown in FIG. 3 is used to obtainassay data. Firstly a buffer solution is made to flow through into theassay assembly 6 as a baseline, followed by a sample to be tested, anamplifier solution, and finally a wash with a second buffer solution.With reference to FIG. 7, for each respective chamber 8, changes in therefractive index at the chamber surface 20 can be detected by thedetector 32 such that the amplitude of the detected signal, for examplechange in the angle at which surface plasmon resonance occurs, increasesin direct proportion to the magnitude of the change in refractive indexat the chamber surface 20.

For each respective chamber 8, once the buffer solution has flowedthrough the chamber 8, a baseline measurement 42 is measured for thedetection region 30. The sample comprising an amount of target entities24 is then introduced into the chamber 8. As the target entities 24 bindto probe entities 22 at the surface 20 of the chamber, the refractiveindex at the surface 20 changes and consequently the amplitude of themeasured signal for the detection region 30 increases 44 a. In somecases, a proportion of the target-probe binding is reversible hence areduction 44 b in the amplitude of the measured signal for the detectionregion 30 may occur until a steady state is reached. Such reduction maynot be observed in cases where the concentration of target entity 24 inthe sample is very high.

With reference to FIG. 2B and FIG. 7, the amplifier solution is thenmade to flow through the chamber 8. Active components 25 in theamplifier solution bind to the target entities 24 which are in turnbound to the probe entities 22. A sufficiently high concentration ofamplifier is made to flow through the chamber 8 such that the boundtarget entities are saturated with amplifier.

This results in a further change to the refractive index at the surface20 of the chamber 8 and consequently the amplitude of the measuredsignal for the detection region 30 increases 46 a. As with thetarget-probe binding, in some cases a proportion of the amplifier-targetbinding is reversible hence a reduction 46 b in the amplitude of themeasured signal for the detection region 30 may occur until a steadystate is reached. Such reduction may not be observed in cases where theconcentration of active component in the amplifier is very high.

Finally the second buffer solution is made to flow through the chamber 8to wash away any remaining unbound sample or amplifier. Consequently,the amplitude of the measured signal for the detection region 30 remainsconstant 48. The local measurements may be any of a number of suitablemeasurements, some of which are described in more detail in theembodiments below.

Alternatively, assay data may be obtained via any other suitable means,or may be obtained from a previously run assay, possibly run by a thirdparty.

Once the assay data has been obtained it is modeled with theparameterized function and a value of ‘Offset’ is determined asdescribed above. The constants DP_(max) and Shape characteristic of theassay assembly having been previously determined using the methoddescribed above and having been marked on the microfluidic deviceitself, for example using a bar code. The parameterized function modelsthe local measurements carried out at each respective chamber 8 againstthe quantity, DZ. The quality of fit of the measured data to theparameterized function is evaluated, for example by calculation ofPearson's coefficient for the fit, using Chi-squared minimizationtechniques or using any other suitable means. The quality of the fit iscompared to a predetermined threshold such that, if the quality of fitis not sufficiently good to meet the threshold, the data is discarded.

Once the value of Offset has been determined by fitting theparameterized function to the assay data obtained, a value indicative ofthe target concentration of the sample can be determined using thecalibration function as outlined above.

Embodiment 1

In a first embodiment, local measurements are carried out at each of therespective chambers 8 in the assay assembly by detecting the amplitudeof the baseline response obtained prior to a sample being made to flowthrough the chamber 8, B₁, shown as detection point 1 on FIG. 7,detecting the amplitude of the response following flow of the secondbuffer through the chamber 8, B₃, shown at detection point 3 on FIG. 7,and determining a difference between the two responses, Δ₃₁=B₃−B₁.

The parameterized function for each respective local measurement istherefore given by equation (10) below.

$\begin{matrix}{\Delta_{31} \cong \frac{2{DP}_{\max \_ {amp}}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)} \right\rbrack}}} & (10)\end{matrix}$

Where DP_(max) _(_) _(amp) is the maximum amplitude of the localmeasurement at a chamber 8 following interaction of the amplifier withthe chamber 8. In this case, since measurements B₁ and B₃ are each madewhen the bulk solution in the chamber is buffer solution (i.e. the bulksolution at each measurement has the same refractive index), as DZ_(i)becomes larger, DP will tend towards zero hence the amplitude DP_(min)of the master curve/parameterised function is zero.

Embodiment 2

A potential drawback with the approach outlined in Embodiment 1 is thatthere can be drift in the signals being compared, for example, due tofluctuations in temperature, vibrations in the system etc. In theexample of Surface Plasmon Resonance, the signal is dependent on thelocal refractive index near the detection surface. Such a signaltherefore comprises contributions from (i) the probe/target layer havinga certain density of target entities bound thereto; (ii) the surroundingliquid; (iii) the metal present at the surface of the chamber e.g. gold.The refractive index of these three contributions is dependent on thetemperature and so drifts in temperature will cause drift in the signaldetected. Similar drift effects result from mechanical vibrations in thesystem.

This is shown on FIG. 7. As a result of this drift, the noise level inthe system is higher and the detection capability decreases as a result.To overcome this, a local measurement Δ₃₂ can be used instead of Δ₃₁, aswill now be described.

Local measurements, Δ₃₂, are carried out at each of the respectivechambers 8 in the assay assembly. Δ₃₂ is measured by detecting theamplitude of a response, B₂, following interaction of the sample withthe chamber surface 20 and prior to interaction of the amplifier withtarget entities bound to the surface, shown as detection point 2 in FIG.7. The amplitude of the response following introduction of the secondbuffer into the chamber 8, B₃, is then detected shown as detection point3 on FIG. 7, and a difference between the two responses, Δ₃₂=B₃−B₂ isdetermined.

Measuring Δ₃₂ this has the advantage that the measurement is made over ashorter time period (because the time between B₂ and B₃ is shorter thanthe time between B₁ and B₃) and so the effect of drift is reduced.

When B₂ is detected the bulk material in the chamber 8 is the sample,whereas when B₃ is detected the bulk material in the chamber 8 is buffersolution. The sample and the buffer solution each have a differentrefractive index, therefore the local measurement, Δ₃₂, comprises acontribution caused by the change in the bulk material from sample tobuffer solution between B₂ and B₃. Accordingly, Δ₃₂ can be representedby equation (11) shown below.

Δ₃₂ =f(Offset)+Δ_(bulk)  (11)

Where f(Offset) is the parameterized function/master curve and Δ_(bulk)is the contribution due to the refractive index of the sample.

Where the sample is blood, for example, the change in the refractiveindex due to the difference in bulk solution between B₂ and B₃,Δ_(bulk), will vary from person to person and is accordingly is unknownquantity.

Δ_(bulk) can be obtained as a further variable parameter by fitting thefunction (11) to the experimental data, that is adjusting Offset andΔ_(bulk) at the same time. Alternatively, with reference to FIG. 7, Δ₂₁can be measured, as will be described below, and used as anapproximation to Δ_(bulk) (ignoring the effect of unamplifiedtarget-probe binding). Δ₂₁ is measured by detecting the amplitude of thebaseline response, B₁, once buffer solution has flowed through the assayassembly, detecting the amplitude of a response, B₂, followinginteraction of the sample with the chamber surface 20 and prior tointeraction of the amplifier with target entities bound to the surface,and determining a difference between B₁ and B₂, i.e. Δ₂₁=B₂−B₁. Themeasurement Δ₂₁ can be thought of according to equations (12) below.

Δ₂₁=Δ_(unamplified) _(_) _(binding)+Δ_(bulk)  (12)

Where Δ_(unamplified) _(_) _(binding) is the contribution due to theunamplified binding of target entities to the surface of the chamber.Since the contribution to the signal from the bulk is much greater thanthe contribution from the unamplified binding of target entities to thesurface of the chamber, measurement Δ₂₁ can be considered asapproximately equal to Δ_(bulk). Accordingly, in some embodiments,Δ₃₂−Δ₂₁ can be used as the local measurements, i.e. the localmeasurements are modeled as Δ₃₂−Δ₂₁=f(Offset). Of course, it isequivalent to model Δ₃₂=Δ₂₁ f(Offset) and this is done instead in someembodiments.

Embodiment 3

In another embodiment, a change of the amplitude of the response signaldetected by the detector 32 as the amplifier flows across the surface 20of the chamber 8, G_(amp), is used as the local measurement. Thismeasurement reflects the rate at which the active components in theamplifier bind with target entities 24 bound to the respective chamber8.

The master depletion curve shown in FIG. 4 and described above alsoapplies in this case where the local measurement is G_(amp), and thecorresponding model is G_(amp)=f(Offset), with f defined as discussedabove, albeit with its parameters adapted accordingly, for example,DP_(max) being the notional maximum rate of change for a saturatedchamber 8.

In the example shown in FIG. 8, G_(amp) equates to the gradient of thecurve at time t₁, indicated by point 4 on the sensorgram. Of course, anyother suitable, for example amplification, rate dependent measurementmay also be taken.

Embodiment 4

In yet another embodiment, a time taken from introduction of theamplifier into the respective chamber to detection of a thresholdamplitude of the response signal or a feature of the signal (e.g. amaximum) is measured. By using 1/Δ_(t) as the local measurement, themaster depletion curve shown in FIG. 4 and described above also appliesand the experimental data can be modeled as 1/Δ_(t)=f(Offset), with fdefined as above, albeit with its parameters adjusted accordingly, e.g.DP_(max) being the notional maximum value of 1/Δ_(t) (minimum of Δ_(t))for a saturated chamber 8.

Of course, any other suitable time dependent measurement may also betaken.

Using the same system and method as described above and taking anysuitable local measurement, when the concentration of the activecomponent in the amplifier is not sufficiently high to saturate theassay assembly, the local measurements are also dependent on this activecomponent concentration which will deplete as the amplifier flows fromone chamber to the next. The parameterized function is thereforearranged to account for this dependency. For example, the parameterizedfunction may contain an additional parameter to account for thedepletion in the active component concentration. Alternatively or inaddition, the ‘Shape’ parameter may be a vector varying with both thesample concentration and amplifier concentration. In some embodiments,the effect of the concentration of amplifier can be thought of as beingakin to the effect of the density of probe entities present in the assayassembly as a first approximation. Accordingly, for example, the valueof DZ_(i) may be adjusted to account for the amplifier concentration ina similar way to how DZ_(i) is adjusted to take into account therelative binding capacity of the assay assembly as described in detailabove.

In general, if amplifier concentrations are non-saturating, twodepletion effects occur: 1) depletion of target entities; 2) depletionof amplifier. (2) will depend on the concentration of target entities ateach detection area. The overall effect will depend on the combinationof these two effects. Each effect is, in some embodiments, assessedindependently and a higher-order function is used to combine botheffects. Alternatively, both effects may simply be captured by using asuitable higher-order function and/or a function with more parametersfor fitting the depletion characteristics (e.g. a 4PL or 5PL function).

It will be understood that whether or not the amplifier is provided in asaturating concentration is independent of the local measurement usedand a non-saturating amplifier concentrations may be used with any oflocal measurements identified in the embodiments described above orindeed any other local measurement.

It will be understood that the above description is of specificembodiments by way of example only and that many modifications andalterations will be within the skilled person's reach and are intendedto be covered by the scope of the appendent claims. For example, whilstthe description above has been set out in terms of detection of changesin surface plasmon resonance, it will be appreciated that any othersuitable means for quantitatively detecting an amount of target-probebinding at the surface 20 may be used, for example, UV absorptionfluorescence of the target entity 24 and/or detection of a label boundto the target entity 24 may be used. In some embodiments, a plurality ofdetection zones is provided in a single chamber, for example withdetection areas from which signals are measured spaced along a strip offunctionalized surface.

1. A method for determining a sample concentration of target entities ina sample, the method comprising: obtaining assay data comprising datapoints of respective local measurements indicative of a localconcentration of the target entities at each of a plurality of assayareas of an assay assembly, wherein the assay areas are connected inseries such that a sample flowing through the assay assembly flows pasteach assay area in sequence, and wherein each assay area comprises aplurality of probe entities immobilized at a surface of the assay area,the probe entities being arranged to bind to the target entities in thesample, such that the concentration of the target entities is depletedas the sample flows from one of the assay areas to the next; modelingthe assay data with a parameterized function of the local measurementsagainst a quantity indicative of the position of the respective assayareas in the sequence, wherein one or more of the parameters aredependent on the sample concentration; and determining a valueindicative of the sample concentration based on at least one of the oneor more parameters.
 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein theparameterized function is derived from assay data sets obtained for arange of sample concentrations.
 3. A method according to claim 1,wherein one of the one or more parameters is indicative of an offsetamount which offsets the quantity indicative of the position of theassay area in the sequence such that the parameterized function is afunction of the local measurements against the quantity indicative ofthe position of the assay area in the sequence, offset by the offsetamount.
 4. A method according to claim 3, wherein the offset amount isdetermined by minimizing a difference between the respective localmeasurement and a corresponding value of the parameterized function foreach assay area of the assay assembly.
 5. A method according to claim 1,wherein the parameterized function is characteristic of the assayassembly.
 6. A method according to claim 5, wherein the parameterizedfunction is at least in part defined by one or more fixed parameterscharacteristic of the assay assembly.
 7. A method according to claim 6,wherein the one or more fixed parameters are determined from data setsof local measurements against the quantity obtained for respectivesample target concentrations spanning a range of sample targetconcentrations.
 8. A method according to claim 1, wherein theparameterized function is a logistic function.
 9. A method according toclaim 8, wherein the parameterized function is proportional to$\frac{{DP}_{\max}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}\left( {{DZ}_{i} + {Offset}} \right)} \right\rbrack}}$wherein DP_(max) and Shape are fixed parameters characteristic of theassay assembly, Offset is a parameter dependent on a sample targetconcentration, and DZ_(i) is indicative of the position of therespective assay area, i, in the sequence.
 10. A method according toclaim 9, including fitting the parameterized function to the assay databy adjusting the value of Offset, and determining the value indicativeof the concentration of target entity in the sample based on Offset. 11.A method according to claim 1, comprising determining the value based onat least one of the one or more parameters using a calibration function,wherein the calibration function comprises a first function for use atsample concentrations of target entities above a given value, and asecond function for use at sample concentrations of target entitiesbelow the given value.
 12. A method according to claim 9, wherein thevalue indicative of the sample concentration is determined using acalibration function and wherein the calibration function comprises afirst function for use at sample concentrations of target entities abovea given value, and a second function for use at sample concentrations oftarget entities below the given value, wherein the first function is afunction of Offset, and the second function is a function of:$\frac{{DP}_{\max}}{1 + {\exp \left\lbrack {{Shape}{Offset}} \right\rbrack}}$13. A method according to claim 1, wherein each local measurement isindicative of a variation in a refractive index at the surface of therespective assay area.
 14. A method according to claim 13, wherein therefractive index at the surface of the respective assay area isdetermined based on the detection of a change in Surface PlasmonResonance.
 15. A method according to claim 13, wherein the variation inthe refractive index at the surface of the respective assay area isamplified by an amplifier solution flowing past the respective assayarea, wherein the amplifier solution is arranged to interact with targetentities bound to the surface of the assay area such that the variationin the refractive index at the respective assay area is amplified whenthe amplifier has interacted with the bound target entities.
 16. Amethod according to claim 15, wherein each local measurement comprises adifference between a pre-amplification signal and post-amplificationsignal, wherein the pre-amplification signal has been detected afterinteraction of the sample with the respective assay area and beforeinteraction of the amplifier solution with target entities bound to therespective assay area, and the post-amplification signal has beendetected after interaction of the amplifier solution with targetentities bound to the respective assay area.
 17. A method according toclaim 16, wherein modeling the assay data comprises using an adjustmentterm to account for a bulk refractive index of the sample.
 18. A methodaccording to claim 17, wherein the adjustment term is determined basedon a difference between a baseline signal detected prior to interactionof the sample with the assay area and the pre-amplification signal. 19.A method according to claim 15, wherein each local measurement isindicative of a rate at which the amplifier solution interacts with therespective assay area.
 20. A method according to claim 15, wherein eachlocal measurement comprises a measurement indicative of the time takenfrom introduction of the amplifier solution into the respective assayarea to detection of a signal feature, for example a maximum orthreshold signal amplitude.
 21. A method according to claim 1, whereinan amount of probe entities with target entities between each pair ofthe plurality of assay areas is substantially constant.
 22. A methodaccording to claim 1 where the quantity indicative of the position ofthe assay area in the sequence is indicative of an amount of probeentities upstream of the position of the assay area.
 23. A methodaccording to claim 1, wherein each assay area is connected to the nextassay area in the sequence via a conduit.
 24. A method according toclaim 1, wherein obtaining assay data comprises: introducing a sampleinto the assay assembly; causing the sample to flow through the assayassembly; and carrying out local measurements at each assay area. 25-27.(canceled)
 28. A method for determining a sample concentration of targetentities in a sample, the method comprising: obtaining assay datacomprising a local measurement indicative of a local concentration ofthe target entity at an assay area of an assay assembly, wherein theassay area comprises a plurality of probe entities immobilized at asurface of the assay area, the probe entities being arranged to bind totarget entities, wherein the local measurement is based on signalsindicative of a variation in a refractive index at the surface of theassay area, such variation being amplified following interaction of anamplifier solution with target entities bound to the surface of theassay area, and wherein the local measurement comprises a differencebetween a pre-amplification signal and post-amplification signal,wherein the pre-amplification signal is detected after interaction ofthe sample with the assay area and before interaction of the amplifiersolution with target entities bound to the assay area, and thepost-amplification signal is detected after interaction of the amplifiersolution with target entities bound to the assay area; adjusting thelocal measurement using an adjustment term such that a bulk refractiveindex of the sample is taken into account; using the adjusted localmeasurement to determine a value indicative of the sample concentration.29. A method according to claim 28, wherein the adjustment term isdetermined based on a difference between a baseline signal detectedprior to interaction of the sample with the assay area and thepre-amplification signal. 30-31. (canceled)